The Middle East Before & After WWI

Past, Present & Future of the Cradle of Civilizations (8)

The Middle East is a region that spreads from Western Asia to North Africa, including Mesopotamia, Arabian Peninsula and the Levant up to Canaan Land of Palestine and Jordan.

The area is famous in being rich with large quantities of crude oil and gas, and it is also the historical origin of major religions such as Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. This perhaps explains why it remains a strategically, economically, politically and religiously sensitive region.

The Ottoman Empire was the one of the largest and longest lasting Empires in history. It was an empire inspired and sustained by Islam, and Islamic institutions.

The Ottomans established the strongest Islamic State in modern history, which was able to defeat the Crusaders and take control of all Canaan Land, the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa (practically all Middle East). They were also able to occupy most of Central Europe all the way to the Balkans, and their Armies invaded Southern Italy, took Cyprus and besieged Vienna the Capital of Austria.

Their Naval Fleet controlled all marine trade routes in the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Persian/Arabia Gulf and Sea of India.

Western European states began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own naval routes to Asia.

The strength of the Ottoman Empire reached its maximum weakness in the beginning of the Twentieth Century, and that encouraged European States to conspire for defeating it politically and militarily.

Certain areas of the Empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of Britain and France.

Muhammad Ali of Egypt came into open conflict with the Ottoman Empire.

His first military campaign was an expedition into the Arabian Peninsula. The holy cities of Mecca, and Medina had been captured by the House of Saud, who had recently embraced a form of Islam called Wahhabism.

Armed with their newfound religious zeal, Muhammad bin Saud began conquering parts of Arabia. This Ottoman–Saudi War culminated in the capture of the Hejaz region from the Ottoman Empire in 1803.

In 1821 the First Hellenic Republic became the first Balkan country to achieve its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It was officially recognized by the Porte (The Sultan the Highest Gate or The Greatest Chest) in 1829, after the end of the Greek War of Independence.

With his own army proving ineffective, Sultan Mahmud II offered Muhammad Ali the island of Crete in exchange for his support in putting down the Greek revolt. Britain, France, and Russia intervened to protect the Greeks.

Ali desired to control Bilad al-Sham (the Levant), both for its strategic value, its natural resources; and its well developed markets throughout the Levant. In addition, it would be a captive market for the goods now being produced in Egypt. Most of all, Syria was desirable as a buffer state between Egypt and the Ottoman Sultan.

The Egyptians overran most of Syria and its hinterland with ease.

After the fall of Acre the Egyptian army marched north into Anatolia and defeated the Ottoman army. There were now no military obstacles between Ibrahim's forces and Constantinople itself.

Sensing that Muhammad Ali was not content with his gains, the sultan attempted to preempt further action against the Ottoman Empire by offering him hereditary rule in Egypt and Arabia if he withdrew from Syria and Crete and renounced any desire for full independence. Muhammad Ali rejected the offer, knowing that Mahmud could not force the Egyptian presence from Syria and Crete.

On 25 May 1838, Muhammad Ali informed Britain, and France that he intended to declare independence from the Ottoman Empire. The European powers, particularly Russia, attempted to moderate the situation and prevent conflict.

Within the Empire, however, both sides were gearing for war.

On 15 July 1840, the British Government, offered Muhammad Ali hereditary rule of Egypt as part of the Ottoman Empire if he withdrew from the Syrian hinterland and the coastal regions of Mount Lebanon. Muhammad Ali hesitated, believing he had support from France. His hesitation proved costly; when French support failed to materialize. British naval forces moved against Syria, and Alexandria. In the face of European military might, Muhammad Ali acquiesced.

After the British, and Austrian navies blockaded the Nile delta coastline, shelled Beirut (11 September 1840) and took Acre (3 November 1840), Muhammad Ali agreed to the terms of the Convention on 27 November 1840. These terms included renouncing his claims over Crete and Hejaz and downsizing his navy, provided that he and his descendants would enjoy hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan.

By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man". And the rise of nationalism swept through many countries and affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. The number of revolutionary political parties rose dramatically.

The 1840 Lebanon conflict began in the north of Lebanon as a rebellion of Maronite peasants against their Druze overlords.

Representatives of the European powers proposed to the sultan that Lebanon be partitioned into Christian and Druze sections.

The sultan adopted the proposal and divided the region, then known as "State of Lebanon", into two districts: a northern district under a Christian deputy governor and a southern district under a Druze deputy governor. This arrangement came to be known as the Double Qaimaqamate (Two States and Two Governors in one country under the Ottoman rule).

Both officials were to be responsible to the governor of Sidon, who resided in Beirut. The Beirut-Damascus highway was the dividing line between the two districts.

The French supported the Christians, while the British supported the Druzes, and the Ottomans fomented strife to increase their control on the divided State.

Consequently, the European powers requested that the Ottoman sultan establish order in Lebanon, and he attempted to do so by establishing a new council in each of the districts. Each council was composed of members who represented the different religious communities and was intended to assist the deputy governor.

This system failed to keep order. In 1858 Tanyus Shahin, a Maronite peasant leader, demanded that the feudal class abolish its privileges. When this demand was refused, the poor peasants began to prepare for a revolt. In January 1859, an armed uprising headed by Shahin flared up.

The disturbances spread to Latakia and central Lebanon. Maronite peasants, actively supported by their clergies, began to prepare for an armed uprising against their Druze masters. The Druze lords in their turn began to arm the Druze irregulars.

In July 1860, fighting spilled over into Damascus.

The bloody events offered France the opportunity to intervene, claiming its ancient role as protector of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

Following the massacre and an international outcry, the Ottoman Empire agreed on 3 August 1860 to the dispatch of up to 12,000 European soldiers to reestablish order.

On October 5, 1860, an international commission composed of France, the UK, Austria, Prussia, and the Ottoman Empire met to investigate the causes of the events of 1860 and to recommend a new administrative and judicial system for Lebanon that would prevent the recurrence of such events.

The commission members agreed that the partition of Lebanon Emirate in 1842 between Druzes and Christians had been responsible for the massacre. Hence, in the Statute of 1861 Lebanon was separated from Syria and reunited under a non-Lebanese Christian Mutasarrif (governor) appointed by the Ottoman sultan, with the approval of the European powers. The Mutasarrif was to be assisted by an administrative council of twelve members from the various religious communities in Lebanon.

Although the troubles had already been quelled by the Ottoman Empire, the French expeditionary corps remained in Syria from August 1860 to June 1861. The French intervention has been described as one of the first humanitarian interventions.

In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar, but the Ottoman government contested this move and maintained its troops in both provinces.

The stalemate lasted for 30 years (Austrian and Ottoman forces coexisted in Bosnia and Novi Pazar for three decades) until 1908, when the Austrians took advantage of the political turmoil in the Ottoman Empire that stemmed from the Young Turk Revolution and annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, but pulled their troops out of Novi Pazar in order to reach a compromise and avoid a war with the Turks.

In 1882 British forces occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing order. Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces de jure until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I.

Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and Cyprus in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912).

Following pressure from the European powers and Armenians, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, assigned the Hamidian regiments to eastern Anatolia (Ottoman Armenia). The regiments were formed mostly of irregular cavalry units of recruited Kurds.

Between 1894 and 1896, large numbers of Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres.

Armenian militants seized the Ottoman Bank headquarters in Constantinople in 1896 to bring European attention to the massacres, but they failed to gain any help.

The Second Constitutional Era began after the Young Turk Revolution (July 3, 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. It marks the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. This era was dominated by the politics of the Committee of Union and Progress, and the movement that would become known as the Young Turks.

During the Italo-Turkish War (1911–12) in which the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire, which lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Edirne (Adrianople) during the Balkan Wars (1912–13).

Many Muslims, out of fear for Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army.

The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty with Germany and established the Ottoman-German Alliance in August 1914, aimed against the common Russian enemy but aligning the Empire with the German side.This Alliance threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's communications with India via the Suez Canal.

The Ottoman Empire entered World War I after the Goeben and Breslau incident, in which it gave safe harbor to two German ships that were fleeing British ships. These ships then attacked the Russian port of Sevastopol, thus dragging the Empire into the war on the side of the Central Powers, in which it took part in the Middle Eastern theatre.

There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut, but there were setbacks as well, like the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians.

The United States never declared war against the Ottoman Empire

The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns.

In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps.

In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the disastrous Siege of Kut (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganized and captured Baghdad in March 1917.

Further to the west, in Sinai and Palestine Campaign, initial British setbacks were overcome when they captured Jerusalem in December 1917. The Egyptian Expeditionary Force, under Field Marshal Edmund Allenby, broke the Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918.

The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I had five main campaigns: the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign and the Gallipoli Campaign.

There were the minor North African Campaign (World War I), the Arab Campaign and South Arabia Campaign.

Besides their regular forces, the Allies used asymmetrical forces in the region. Participating on the Allied side were Arabs who participated in the Arab Revolt, and Armenian militia who participated in the Armenian Resistance. The Armenian volunteer units and Armenian militia formed the Armenian Corps of the Democratic Republic of Armenia in 1918. This theatre encompassed the largest territory of all the theatres of the war.

The Ottomans accepted the Armistice of Mudros with the Allies on 30 October 1918, and signed the Treaty of Sèvres on 10 August 1920 and later the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923.

In 1914, The British established the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, British Dardanelles Army and Egyptian Expeditionary Forces to oppose Ottoman and German forces in the Caucasus.

In 1916, an Arab Revolt began in Hejaz (Arabia) under the direction of Emir Feisal and British advisers, of whom T.E. Lawrence is the best known.

France sent the French Armenian Legion to this theatre as part of its larger French Foreign Legion. Foreign Minister Aristide Briand needed to provide troops for French commitment made in Sykes-Picot Agreement, which was still secret.

The Armenian Legion fought in Palestine and Syria. Many of the volunteers in Foreign Legion who managed to survive the first years of the war were generally released from the Legion to join their respective national armies.

During World War I, Hussein initially remained allied with the Ottomans but began secret negotiations with the British on the advice of his son, Abdullah, who had served in the Ottoman parliament up to 1914 and was convinced that it was necessary to separate from the increasingly nationalistic Ottoman administration.

Further, evidence that the Ottoman government was planning to depose him at the end of the war helped sour this alliance.

The British Secretary of State for War, Lord Kitchener, appealed to him for assistance in the conflict on the side of the Triple Entente. Hussein seized the opportunity and demanded recognition of an Arab nation that included the Hejaz and other adjacent territories as well as approval for the proclamation of an Arab Caliphate of Islam.

Britain accepted and assured him that his assistance would be rewarded by an Arab empire encompassing the entire span between Egypt and Persia, with the exception of imperial possessions and interests in Kuwait, Aden, and the Syrian coast.

But after protracted negotiations, with neither side committing to clear terms, including on key matters such as the fate of Palestine, Hussein became impatient and commenced with what would become known as The Great Arab Revolt against Ottoman control in 1916.

In the aftermath of the war, the Arabs found themselves freed from centuries of Ottoman Sultanate rule, but under the mandate colonial rule of France and the United Kingdom. As these mandates ended, the sons of Husain were made the kings of Transjordan (later Jordan), Syria and Iraq.

However, the monarchy in Syria was short-lived, and consequently Hussein’s son (Faisal) instead presided over the newly-established Iraq as King of Hejaz.

When Hussein declared himself King of the Hejaz, he also declared himself King of all Arabs (malik bilad-al-Arab).

This aggravated his conflict with Ibn Saud, with whom he had fought before WWI on the side of the Ottomans in 1910.

Two days after the Turkish Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on March 3, 1924, Hussein declared himself Caliph.

The claim to the title had a mixed reception, and he was soon ousted and driven out of Arabia by the Saudis, a rival clan that had no interest in the Caliphate. Saud defeated Hussein in 1924.

Hussein continued to use the title of Caliph when living in Transjordan.

The Committee of Union and Progress was an umbrella name for different underground factions, some of which were generally referred to as the "Young Turks".

It built an extensive organization, having presence in towns, in the capital, and throughout Europe. Under this umbrella name one could find ethnic Albanians, Bulgarians, Arabs, Serbians, Jews, Greeks, Turks, Kurds and Armenians united by the common goal of changing the régime.

After the 1908 revolution, in the absence of this goal the revolution began to fracture and different allegiances began to emerge.

Abdul Hamid II was quite successful in suppressing the organization, and even approached the French and German governments to assist in the suppression of this political movement.

The Young Turk Revolution played a significant role in the evolution of Committee of Union and Progress from a revolutionary organization to a political party.

Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, Mustafa Kamal Ataturk a young Ottoman Army Officer, led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence.

Having established a provisional government in Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies. His military campaigns gained Turkey independence. Atatürk then embarked upon a program of political, economic, and cultural reforms, seeking to transform the former Ottoman Empire into a modern, westernized and secular nation-state. The principles of Atatürk's reforms, upon which modern Turkey was established, are referred to as Kemalism.

On 29 October 1923, the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed.

During this time another important incident was building up in the region. When in1897 Theodore Herzl established the Zionist Movement, he was actually encouraging Jews around the world, to re-establish their national state, within Palestine. 

He called on all Jews to immigrate to the territory. Turkey banded the Jewish Immigration but later eased its rule under enormous pressure from Europe.

By the end of the First World War, Great Britain had the British Mandate for Palestine. The issuance of the Balfour Declaration greatly increased the immigration of Jews to Palestine. In 1947, Great Britain decided to turn its Mandate over to the United Nations, which, in the same year, adopted Resolution 181, partitioning the land into two states, one Arab and one Jewish.

The Jewish community agreed to the partition, but Arab countries and Palestinian Arabs did not, resulting in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the first in a series of wars fought between Israel and the Arab world.

On October 30, 1918, The Armistice of Mudros, signed on aboard the HMS Agamemnon in Mudros port on the island of Lemnos between the Ottoman Empire and the Triple Entente. Ottoman operations in the active combat theaters ceased.

The occupation of Istanbul along with the occupation of İzmir, mobilized the establishment of the Turkish national movement and led to the Turkish War of Independence.

On 18 January 1919, peace negotiations began, however it took definite shape only after the premiers' meeting at the San Remo conference in April 1920. France, Italy, and Great Britain, on the other hand, had been secretly partitioning of the Ottoman Empire as early as 1915.

The Ottoman Government representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres on August 10, 1920, however, treaty was not sent to Ottoman Parliament for ratification, as Parliament was abolished on March 18, 1920 by the British, during the occupation of Istanbul.

The Treaty of Sèvres was annulled in the course of the Turkish War of Independence and the parties signed and ratified the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.

On March 3, 1924, the Caliphate was abolished when Mustafa Kamal Ataturk deposed the last Ottoman caliph, Abdul Mejid II.

The Lausanne Treaty formally acknowledged the new League of Nations mandates in the Middle East, the cession of their territories on the Arabian Peninsula, and British sovereignty over Cyprus.

The League of Nations granted Class A mandates for the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon and British Mandate of Mesopotamia and Palestine, the later comprising two autonomous regions: Mandate Palestine and Transjordan.

Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became part of what is today Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire became a pivotal milestone in the creation of the modern Middle East, the result of which bore witness to the creation of new conflicts and hostilities in the region.

By the first discoveries of petroleum in 1914, the Middle East turned suddenly from a strategic region only, to a rich and strategic region.

The major fields were found in southwestern Persia, in the river valleys of Iraq, and along the Persian Gulf. These new-found riches heightened the interest of the European powers, and in the 1930s, America entered the area to compete with the well-established French and British interests.

After World War I, Arab territories of the old Ottoman Empire were administered as Western mandates, not annexed as Western colonies. The French had received the mandates for Syria and for Syria’s half-Christian neighbor, Lebanon.

The British, who already held a protectorate over Egypt, were given the mandates for Palestine and Iraq. The only major Arab state enjoying anything like full independence was Saudi Arabia.

Arab nationalism was already focused on the special problem of Palestine, for by the Balfour Declaration of 1917 the British had promised to open this largely Arab-populated territory as a “national home for the Jewish people.”

The immigration of Jews into Palestine (especially after the Nazis took power in Germany), raised their proportion of the population from about 10 percent to about 30 percent and caused repeated clashes between Arabs and Jews.

The French made few concessions to Arab nationalism, infuriating the Syrians by bombarding their capital of Damascus while quelling an insurrection in 1925 and 1926. A decade later the expectations aroused by the Popular Front’s willingness to grant at least some independence to Syria and Lebanon were nullified when the French parliament rejected the draft treaties, intensifying the Arab sense of betrayal.

In Egypt nationalist agitation after World War I led Britain to proclaim that country an independent monarchy under King Fuad I (1868-1936). The British, however, still retained the right to station troops there.

The Iranian revolution began in 1905-1906 in response to imperialist encroachments by Britain and Russia. The political structure inherited from the Middle Ages was changed into a limited monarchy with an elected parliament.

However, the country did not adapt itself readily to modern Western political institutions. The shah was unwilling to give up his traditional powers, and the British and Russians were unwilling to give up their spheres of influence. During World War I, therefore, they both stationed troops in an ostensibly neutral Persia.

The Russian Revolution eased the czarist threat to Persian sovereignty, and at the end of the war Persian nationalists forced their government to reject a British attempt to negotiate a treaty that would have made the country a virtual British protectorate. The leader of the nationalists was Reza Khan (1878-1944), an able army officer of little education who deeply distrusted the Russians.

He used his military successes to become, first, minister of war and then, in 1923, prime minister. Thereafter he tried to manipulate the Majles, or parliament, to his purposes, and he won the support of the army and the cabinet. After conferring with the clergy in the holy city of Qum, the forces of Islam also fell into line behind him. In 1925 the Majles deposed the Qajar dynasty and proclaimed Reza to be Reza Shah Pahlavi.

Reza Shah lacked familiarity with the West, and his erratic attempts to modernize his isolated country often failed. He ruled in increasingly arbitrary fashion, also demonstrating mounting sympathy for the Nazis. In 1941, after Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union, the British and Soviets sent troops into Iran and forced Reza Shah’s abdication in order to secure the important trans-Iranian supply route to the Soviet Union.

The fate of Reza Shah was a reminder that some of the seemingly sovereign states of the non-Western world were not yet strong enough to maintain their independence against great powers. By World War II imperial ties had been loosened but by no means severed or dissolved; the full revolution against imperialism was yet to come.

At the end of World War I, the League of Nations granted the area to the United Kingdom as a mandate. It initially formed two former Ottoman vilayets (regions): Baghdad and Basra into a single country in August 1921. Five years later, in 1926, the northern Vilayet of Mosul was added, forming the territorial boundaries of the modern Iraqi state.

During the mandate, British colonial administrators ruled the country, and through the use of British armed forces, suppressed Arab and Kurdish rebellions against the occupation. They established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler.

Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.

Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his under age son, Faisal II. Abdullah served as Regent during Faisal's minority.

On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and overthrew the government of Abdullah.

During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that Rashid Ali’s government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of his links to the Axis powers. The war started on 2 May and an armistice was signed 31 May.

A military occupation followed the restoration of the pre-coup government of the Hashemite monarchy. The occupation ended on 26 October 1947.

What's behind Numbers, Colors and Symbols?

Why most of political parties choose certain colors and symbols for their logos and slogans?

How countries select their flags’ colors and some put symbols on them?

Why it is important to a country or a political party to have specified colors and symbols reflect their political trends?

How does religion interact with politics through numbers, colors and symbols?

What do numbers mean to religions and societies?

Cultural, religious, political, social individuals and groups use colors to represent their traditional concepts or feelings, or to evoke physical reactions. They express in colors some kind of communication or gestures.

Generally speaking colors refer to certain personal moods, or reflect certain resemblance; for instance, BLACK is the color of night and its mysteries. Sometimes represent evil, and can also be relating to elegance or class. It may also refer to power, sophistication, wealth, sadness, depth, anger and mourning. It is taken to symbolize Anarchism, Fascism and Catholicism.

WHITE on the other hand is sacred and pure, and is the color of Gods, Angels, peace, purity, simplicity, youth, but can also refer to sadness and mourning. It can be symbol to humility, winter, cold and sterile and refers to Monarchism.

Whereas BLUE is mostly known as Virgin Mary's color, accompanies pure and innocent females. It is the color of oceans, skies and indicates life, calmness, stability, security, loyalty, technology and depression.

BROWN is always associated with Earth, Home, comfort, endurance, simplicity. GREEN represents nature, environment, good luck, youth also jealousy and misfortune. It is also associated with some Islamic groups and countries.

ORANGE associates with balance, warmth, enthusiasm and demanding of attention. PINK goes with innocence and child-like character. It is also considered as color of good health. Sometimes it accompanies love, femininity, sexuality and purity. PURPLE can be color of royalty, nobility, wisdom, enlightenment, also cruelty and arrogance. RED is the color of blood and can symbolize strong emotions, life and vitality. It indicates to the Sun as symbol of energy. RED and WHITE together mean happiness, and used in weddings and ceremonies mainly in far eastern countries. The combination is also the color of bond and commitment. It is associated with Socialism, Communism and Nationalism.

YELLOW is joy and happiness and signifies optimism, idealism, gold and also dishonesty, cowardice, deceit, illness and danger. It also signifies Liberalism, and symbolizes extremity.

Symbols in general are signs or marks that define certain brand or idea and represent some information. Most of old languages started as symbols before they were developed to characters and words. Symbols are found in Religious, Artistic, Alchemical, Astronomical, Chemical, Electrical and Mathematical works. Maybe symbols go back to the time of creation when they were perhaps the only means of communication.

By the time ancient civilizations were founded, nations started to choose certain colors and symbols to indicate their identity. The same ancient symbols and colors resemble today the political or religious or social definitions.

Symbols surround us in many forms and most of them are taken for granted today as static signs of religious or secular life that was created long ago. Over time, they have acquired layers of increasingly complex meaning, and this evolution of meaning tells us many ideas about how the nature of life and universe was developed.

The CIRCLE for example is the most common and universal signs, found in all cultures. It is the symbol of the sun in its limitless or boundless aspect. It has no beginning or end, and no divisions, making it the perfect symbol of completeness, eternity, and the soul. It is also the symbol of boundary and enclosure, of completion, and returning cycles. The wedding ring symbolizes not just a pledge of eternal love, but the enclosure of the heart- a pledge of fidelity.

The equal armed SOLAR CROSS is another universal symbol, and the first truly theological emblem, marking not only the points of the solar calendar, but the juxtaposition of the realm of the material with the realm of the divine.

The ARC is found in more complex symbols, especially planetary symbols, represents ascension or striving. It is a traditional element of architecture and often figures in commemorative monuments of triumph and achievement.

The CRESCENT represents the powers of the moon- reflective and receptive. A reversed crescent often represents emptiness and illusion.

The TRIANGLE is associated with Christian trinity or Freemasonry. To the ancient Pythagoreans, the triangle was, as the first complete polygon, the womb of number and the essence of stability.  The upward moving triangle is sometimes called the blade and it is a symbol of aspiration or rising up, male force, and fire. The downward pointing triangle maybe referred to as the chalice. It is the symbol of water, the grace of heaven, and the womb, a representation of the genitalia of the goddess.

The ARROW is known to be a symbol of power and also shows swiftness and knowledge. It was used by the Greek goddess Artemis and the Greek god Apollo who were both known as hunters.  Also used by Greek god Eros, Roman god Cupid, and the Hindu god Kama – all are known as gods of sexual attraction.

The LION is a symbol of power, also indicates bravery and ferocity.

A CRESCENT MOON is a symbol of the aging goddess (crone) to contemporary witches and victory over death. In Islamic lands, crescent can be seen enclosing a lone pentagram.

DRAGON is a mythical monster made up of many animals: serpent, lizard, bird, lion... It may have many heads and breathes fire. To medieval Europe, it was dangerous and evil, but people in Eastern Asia believe it has power to help them against more hostile spiritual forces. In the Bible it represents Satan, the devil.

HEXAGRAM or Six-pointed Star when surrounded by a circle, it represents the "divine mind" (a counterfeit of God's wisdom) to numerous occult groups through the centuries. Many still use it in occult rituals. But to Jewish people, it is their Star of David.

SPIRAL is linked to the "circle". It is as ancient symbol of the goddess, the womb, fertility, feminine serpent force, continual change, and the evolution of the universe.

The square represents the physical world. Like the quartered circle, it points pagans to the four compass directions: north, east, south and west. While the circle and "spiral" symbolize female sexuality in many earth-centered cultures, the square represents male qualities.

SWASTIKA 1 is an ancient occult symbol of the sun and the four directions. Revived by Hitler, it represents racism and the "white supremacy" of Neo-Nazis. Like other occult symbols, it is often placed inside a "circle".

UNICORN means power, purification, healing, wisdom, self-knowledge, renewal and eternal life. Medieval myths suggested it could only be caught with help from a virgin who would befriend it.

All-seeing EYE in the PYRAMID is the official symbol for DARPA Total Information Awareness, a surveillance and information system established by they U.S. government.

CADUCEUS is a figure of two serpents wrapped a center rod where the rod is a symbol of transforming alchemical power. The two serpents represent polarity or duality. Together with the sprouted wings depict the caduceus having an alchemical meaning of balance, duality and following the alchemical process leading to unity. The caduceus is also seen in medical circles.

PENTACLE is a symbol of harmony, health and mystic powers. The Pythagoreans adopted it as a sign of health and the marriage of heaven and earth. As a sign of heaven, earth, as well as human body and mind, the pentacle holds great power.

The LABYRINTH is a winding, maze-like path, often resembling a spiral and almost always has spiritual significance.

The Symbol of SCIENTOLOGY consists of the letter “S” interlaced with two triangles. Each triangle represents three inseparably linked concepts; the KRC (Knowledge, Responsibility and Control) and the ARC” (Affinity, Reality and Communication).The S, stands for “Scientology.”

The ASCLEPIUS (Aesculapius) Wand is the true symbol of the medical profession. It dates to antiquity, and was a symbol of the Greek God of healing, Aesculapius. The symbol of a serpent entwined staff also appears in the biblical book of Exodus, wherein Moses is instructed to erect a brass pole with a serpent; whoever looked upon it was healed. It is the symbol of medicine and pharmacists.

The eight points in the STAR OF ISHTAR represent the movements of the planet Venus associated with this Goddess, and the eight gates of the city of Babylon.

BABYLONIAN TREE OF LIFE (Mesopotamian Tree of Life) in Babylonian mythology was a magical tree that grew in the center of paradise. The Apsu, or primordial waters, flowed from its roots. It is the prototype of the tree described in Genesis: the biblical Tree of Paradise evolved directly from this ancient symbol; it is the symbol from which the Egyptian, Islamic and Kabalistic tree of life concepts originated.

The Four letters in the TETRAGRAMMATON (Greek, ‘four letters’) is the 

true’ name of the God of the Hebrew Scriptures. It never appears complete in written form; only the four consonant letters, YHVH (Hebrew, Yod Heh Vau Heh, read right to left), or in the Latin version, IHVH. In modern Judaism, the Tetragrammaton is commonly referred to as “HaShem,” meaning, “The Name,” and the pronunciation rules still apply.

The TRIQUETRA makes an ideal Christian symbol. It is a perfect representation of the concept of “three in one” in Christian trinity beliefs, and incorporates another popular Christian symbol, the fish, in its original form of the Vesica Pisces. It is sometimes enclosed within a circle to emphasize the unity aspect.

The right EYE OF HORUS/Eye of Ra (Udjat, Wedjat) reflects solar, masculine energy, as well as reason and mathematics. The left eye reflects fluid, feminine, lunar energy, and rules intuition and magic. Together, they represent the combined transcendent power of Horus. The Masonic all seeing eye, the Eye of Providence symbol found on American money, and the modern Rx pharmaceutical symbol are all descended from the this symbol.

The STAR AND CRESCENT OF ISLAM emblem is commonly recognized as the symbol of the Islamic faith, is very ancient, dating back to early Sumerian civilization. The symbol was adopted by the Ottoman Dynasty, who is mainly responsible for its association with Islam. Today, the star and crescent is widely accepted as a symbol of the Islamic faith, and is used in decorative arts, jewelry, and national flags- much like the cross in Christian countries.

The HAMSA, Hand of Fatima is an ancient symbol, used as a protective amulet by both Jews and Muslims. The name Hamsa is derived from the Semitic root meaning “five.” The hand symbol is called the Hand of Fatima by Muslims, named for the daughter of Mohamed, and is sometimes said to symbolize the five pillars or tenets of Islam. In Jewish use, it is sometimes called the hand of Miriam, after the biblical heroine. The eye in hand is considered a powerful talisman against the ‘evil eye,’ and is usually worn around the neck or hung on walls or over the doors of homes and businesses.

The WINGED HEART is a symbol of the Sufi movement, a mystic branch of Islam. The symbol is a heart with wings, symbolizing ascension; the five pointed star represents divine light, the moon responsiveness to this light.

The MASONIC SQUARE AND COMPASS is one of the most common symbols of Freemasonry. The compass and square are architect’s tools, and symbolize God as the architect of the universe, among other things. As measuring instruments, the tools represent judgment and discernment. The compass, which is used to draw circles, represents the realm of the spiritual- eternity. It is symbolic of the defining and limiting principle, and also of infinite boundaries. The angle measures the square, the symbol of earth and the realm of the material. The square represents fairness, balance, firmness, etc.

Together, the compass and square represent the convergence of matter and spirit, and the convergence of earthly and spiritual responsibilities. The two symbols together form a hexagram, the union of earth with the heavens, matter and mind, etc.

Image via WikipediaThe DOUBLE-HEADED EAGLE is the emblem of the thirty second and thirty-third (and highest) degrees of Scottish Rite Freemasonry. Alchemically, the eagle was a symbol of purified sulfur, and was used in alchemical images to portray the ascending spirit. The double heads are often emblematic of the reconciliation of matter and spirit. Other elements in the Masonic eagle reinforce the alchemical symbolism- a sword representing heavenly fire, and the crown of spiritual attainment.

The point within the CIRCUMPUNCT is a symbol used in Freemasonry. It is a solar-phallic symbol used in ancient Egypt to represent the eternal nature of the sun god Ra. The lines which enclose the circle call to mind the Akhet, the ancient ‘gate’ of the sun, a symbol of rebirth and resurrection. To the Pythagoreans, the point and circle represented eternity, whose “center is everywhere and the circumference nowhere.”

The Greek mathematician Pythagoras is credited with the discovery of the GOLDEN RECTANGLE. The Golden Rectangle is built on the “golden ratio” or “golden proportion,” which is determined by the irrational number known as Phi. (Symbolized by its namesake, the Greek letter phi.). To put it simply, a golden rectangle is a rectangle divided in such a way as to create a square and a smaller rectangle that retains the same proportions as the original rectangle. To do this, one must create a rectangle based on the golden ratio. To find the Golden Ratio, one must divide a line so that the ratio of the line to the larger segment is equal to the ratio of the larger segment to the smaller:

There’s an enormous range of symbolic roles that numbers have played in various cultures, religions, and other systems of human thought.

(ONE) is a number, numeral, and the name of the glyph representing that number. It represents a single entity. It is considered to be a primordial unity. The beginning. The Creator. It is the First Cause or the First Mover. One is the sum of all possibilities. It is essence, the Center and refers to isolation. It is seen as the number that gives cause to duality as multiplicity and back to final unity.

Chinese refer to one as Yang, masculine; celestial. For the Christians ONE is the God the Father.  For Hebrews it is Adonai, the Lord, the Most High, the I am. For Muslims it is ONE GOD as unity; the Absolute; self sufficient.

TWO is: Duality- Alteration - Diversity – Conflict - Dependence. It is a static condition. It is rooted, seen as balance (two sides); stability; reflection. Two are the opposite poles. It represents the dual nature of the human being. It is desire, since all that is manifest in duality is in pairs of opposites. The Buddhists see two as the duality of Samsara; male and female. Two is theory and practice; wisdom and method. It is blind and the lame united to see the way and to walk it. For the Chinese it is Yin , feminine; terrestrial; inauspicious. For Christians it is Christ with two natures as God and human. For Hebrews TWO is The life-force. In Kabala it is wisdom and self-consciousness. The Hindu’s Two is duality, the Shakta-Shakti.

THREE is the third dimension. It's roots stem from the meaning of multiplicity. Three is a moving forward of energy, overcoming duality, expression, manifestation and synthesis. Three is the first number to which the meaning "all" was given. It is The Triad, being the number of the whole as it contains the beginning, middle and an end.

The power of three is universal and is the Tripartide nature of the world as heaven, earth, and waters. It is human as body, soul and spirit. Three is birth, life, death. It is the beginning, middle and end. Three is a complete cycle unto itself. It is past, present and future. The symbol of three is the triangle. Pythagorean’s three means completion.

Egyptian’s Hermetic tradition, Thoth is the Thrice Great, 'Trismegistus'. The Supreme Power.

FOUR represents the cardinal points; four seasons; four winds; four directions (as in North, South, East, And West); four elements (Fire, Water, Air, Earth).

There are four sides to a square; four arms to a cross. There are four rivers to Paradise. There are four watches of the night and day, quarters of the moon. There are four quarters to the earth. Four is a symbolic number used throughout in the Old Testament. The quaternary can be depicted as the quatre-foil as well as the square and the cross.The Buddhist’s Damba Tree of Life has four limbs and from its roots four sacred streams of Paradise that represent the four boundless wishes of compassion, affection, love impartiality. In Buddhism there are four celestial guardians of cardinal points are Mo-li Ch'ing, the East, with the jade ring and spear; Virupaksha, the West, the Far-gazer, with the four-stringed quitar; Virudhaka, the South, with the umbrella of choas and darkness and earthquakes; Vaisravenna, the North, with the whips, leopard-skin bag, snake and pearl. The Chinese Four is the number of the Earth, symbolized by the square. There are four streams of immortality. It is Yin in polarity. Christian’s Four is the number representing the body, with three representing the soul. Again we see the theme of the four rivers in Paradise. There are four Gospels, Evangelists, chef arch-angels, chef-devils, four Fathers of the Church, Great Prophets. There are four cardinal virtues--prudence, fortitude, justice, temperance. There are four winds from which the One Spirit is said to come. There are four horsemen of the Apocalypse. The Egyptian Four is the sacred number of Time, measurement of the sun. Four pillars support the vault of heaven. Greek Four is the sacred number of Hermes. Four in Hebrew represents measurement; beneficence; intelligence. In the Kabbalah four is memory; four represents the four worlds of the Kabbalah. It also represents the four directions of space and the four levels of the hierarchical organism of the Torah. It is Totality; plenitude; perfection in Hindu. The Four faced Creator in Brahma. The temple is based on the four sides of the square, symbolizing order and finality. Mayan’s Four giants support the celestial roof. Four is seen as the number of support. Pythagorean’s Four is Perfection; harmonious proportion; justice; the Earth. Four is the number of the Pythagorean oath. Four and ten are divinities. The Tetraktys 1+2+3+4 =10.

FIVE is the symbol of human microcosm. It is the number of the human being. Human forms the pentagon when arms and legs are out stretched. The pentagon is endless ---sharing the symbolism of perfection and power of the circle. Five is a circular number as it produces itself in its last digit when raised to its own power. Five in Hindu is a circle. The pentacle, like the circle symbolizes whole, the quincunx being the number of its center and the meeting point of heaven, earth, and the four cardinal points plus the center point. Five is also representative of the Godhead - Central Creator of the four fours plus itself equaling five. The number five symbolizes meditation; religion; versatility. It represents the five senses (taste, touch, smell, sight, and hearing) everywhere except in the East The five pointed star depicts individuality and spiritual aspiration, and education when it points upward. If pointed downward it represents witchcraft, and it is used in black magic. Chinese five elements. Five atmospheres; conditions; planets; sacred mountains; grains, colors, tastes, poisons; powerful charms; cardinal virtues; blessings; eternal ideas; relations to human kind.

Christians’ Five senses; Five points to the cross; Five wounds of Christ; fishes feeding five thousand; and Five books of Moses. Five is the nuptial number of love and union.. It is the number of Venus. Venus years are completed in groups of five. Apollo as god of light has five qualities: omniscience, omnipresence; omnipotence, eternity, and unity. Hebrew’s Five represents strength and severity; radical intelligence. In kabala five represents fear. Hindu’s Five elements of the subtle and coarse states; their primary colors; of senses; five faces of Siva and the twice-five incarnations of Vishnu. Islam’s Five pillars of religion; five Divine Presences; five fundamental dogmas; five actions; and five daily times of prayer.

SIX represents equilibrium; harmony - balance. It is the perfect number 1+2+3=6. It is the most productive of all numbers. It symbolizes union of polarity, the hermaphrodite being represented by the two  interlaced triangles, the upward- pointing as male, fire and the heavens, and the downward-pointing as female, the waters and the earth. Six is the symbol of luck; love; health; beauty; chance. Chinese Six represents Universe. Chinese’ six senses: taste, touch, smell, sight, hearing, the sixth being mind. The day and night each have six periods. Christian’s Six is perfection; completion because man was created on the sixth day. Six is man's number The most obvious use of this number is in the notorious passage containing 666. (Rev 13:18 NIV) This calls for wisdom. If anyone has insight, let him calculate the number of the beast, for it is man's number. His number is 666. In Hebrew and Islam There are six days of creation. It symbolizes meditation and intelligence. It is beauty and creation in Kabala. Luck for Pythagoreans.

SEVEN is the number of the Universe. It is the three of the heavens (soul) combined with the four (body) of the earth; being the first number containing both the spiritual and the temporal. It represents the virginity of the Great Mother - feminine archetype - She who creates. There are 7 ages of man. 7 ancient wonders of the world. 7 circles of Universe. 7 cosmic stages. 7 days of the week 7 heavens 7 hells 7 pillars of wisdom 7 rays of the sun 7 musical notes. In Alchemy there are seven metals involved with the Work.

There are seven stars of the Great Bear which are indestructible. There are seven Pleiades-- sometimes referred to as the, Seven Sisters. Buddhist’s Seven is the number of ascent and of ascending to the highest; attaining the center. The seven steps of Buddha symbolize the ascent of the seven cosmic stages transcending time and space.

In Christianity there are seven sacraments; 7 gifts of spirit; the seven of 3+4 theological and cardinal virtues; 7 deadly sins. There are 7 councils of the early church – 7 crystal spheres containing the planets - 7 devils cast out by Christ – 7 joys and sorrows of Mary - 7 liberal arts – 7 major prophets – 7 periods of fasting and penitence - seventh day after the six of creation In the Old Testament there are the seven altars of Baalam; 7 oxen and 7 rams for sacrifice; 7 trumpets; 7 circuits of Jericho; seven times Naaman bathed in the Jordan. The Ark rested on the seventh month and the dove was sent out after seven days.

The Egyptian priestesses of Hathor have seven jars in their seven tunics. Ra has seven hawks representing the seven Wise Ones. Six cows and a bull represent fertility. There are seven houses of the underworld and Seven is the sacred number of Osiris. Apollo’s lyre has seven strings, Pan had seven pipes and there are seven Wise Men of Greece.

Seven is the number of occult intelligence. There are seven Great Holy Days in the Jewish year; the Menorah has seven branches; the Temple took seven years to build; and there are seven pillars of wisdom. Hinduism’s Seven Jewels of the Brahmans, seven gods before the floods and seven Wise Men saved from it. It is the perfect number in Islam; 7 heavens, 7 climates, 7 earths, 7 seas, 7 color.

Seven is a cosmic number with three of heaven and four of the world. There are seven lunar divisions and days of the week. There are seven zones of earth; heavens, symbolized by the planes of ziggurat. There are seven branches to the Tree of Life each having seven leaves There are seven gates of hell, seven demons of Tiamat and seven winds to destroy her. Seven is a mystic number traditionally associated with Venus and more recently with Neptune.

Spiritually EIGHT is the goal of the initiate, having gone through the seven stages.

Eight is Infinity - Paradise regained. Eight is solidarity as the first cube and it denotes perfection by virtue of it's six surfaces. There are eight winds and intermediate directions of space. Eight represents the pairs of opposites. The octagon is the beginning of the transformation of the square into a circle and vice versa. Eight is Felicity, Perfect rhythm, Regeneration, Resurrection

Buddhist Eight is completion, all possibilities. There are eight symbols of good augury. In China Eight represents the whole. It is all possibilities in manifestation. Eight is seen as a good luck number. Eight is significant in the  trigrams and pairs of opposites in the PAKUA. There are eight delights of human existence. Eight in Christianity is rebirth and regeneration. Eight is perfect intelligence; splendor. The digit value of "IHVH" is the "Number of the Lord". Hindu: 8x8 symbolism is the order of the celestial world established on earth. Temples are built on the pattern of the MANDALA, which is the 8x8 symbol. In their belief system there are eight regions of the world, suns, divisions of the day, and eight Chakras. The Throne in Islam, which encompasses the world, is supported by eight angels, corresponding to both the eight divisions of space and the groups of letters in the Arabic alphabet. Japanese Eight is the "many". There are eight Gods in the heavens. Plato has eight spheres of different colors surrounding the luminous pillars of the heavens. Pythagorean’s Eight is solidarity and stability.

NINE is composed of the all-powerful 3x3. It is the Triple Triad - Completion; fulfillment; attainment; beginning and the end; the whole number; a celestial and angelic number - the Earthly Paradise. It is the number of the circumference, its division into 90 degrees and into 360 for the entire circumference. Nine is symbolized by the two triangles which are a symbol of male, fire, mountain and female, water, and cave principles. Buddhist tradition holds nine to be the supreme spiritual power, and a celestial number. Chinese Nine is a celestial power. It is 3x3 being the most auspicious of all the numbers. Nine also signifies the eight directions with the center as the ninth point known as the Hall of Light. There are nine great social laws and classes of officials. In land divisions for Feng Shui there are eight exterior squares for cultivation of the land by holders and the central, and ninth, square is a "god's acre", dedicated to Shang-ti, the supreme ruler. It is also known as the Emperor's Field, giving homage and respect denoting the position of heavenly power.

Christians’ Nine is the triple triads of choirs of angels and nine spheres and nine rings around hell. Egyptian mythology nine represents The Ennead. There are nine Greek/Roman Gods and nine muses. Hebrew Nine is pure intelligence (eight was perfect intelligence). Also represents truth, since it reproduces itself when multiplied. Kabbalism nine symbolizes foundation. Hindu Nine is the number of Agni, fire. The square of the nine forms the mandala of eighty-one squares and leads to, and encloses the Universe. Mayan Nine underworlds each ruled by a God. Pythagorean Nine is the limit of all numbers, all others existing and coming from the same.

TEN is the number of the cosmos---the paradigm of creation. All things and possibilities. It is the radix or turning point of all counting. Ten is all-inclusive representing law; order and dominion. The Tetraktys 1+2+3+4= 10 symbolizes divinity and one represents a point; two, length; three, a plane or surface (as a triangle); four, solidity or space. It is seen as the perfect--the return to unity. When based on the digits of the two hands, it is completeness and the foundation of all counting. Its highest ranges of completeness, 100 and 1000, are the basis of all Hindu cosmology and in China the Ten Thousand Things, ie: the uncountable, symbolize the whole of manifestation. Ten is also the number of completion of journeys and returns to origins. Ten is the sum of the number nine of the circumference with the one of the center---being perfection. Chinese character chi, symbolizing the self facing both ways as both Yin and Yang, which is considered to be the perfect figure. The Ten Celestial Stems (Kan) are possibly connected with the names of the ten-day week on the prevailing cyclic calculations, as evident in the number sixty.

There are Ten Commandments of the Decalogue; as there are ten parables of the ten lamps, 10 virgins, and 10 talents. In Solomon¹s Temple there were ten layers, 10 tables and 10 candlesticks. The cherubim were ten cubits high and ten Levites minister before the Ark.  

The number ELEVEN is double digit that repeats itself - therefore is considered as a Master or Power Number. In Numerology - 11 represents impractical idealism, visionary, refinement of ideals, intuition, revelation, artistic and inventive genius, avant-garde, androgynous, film, fame, refinement fulfilled when working with a practical partner.

Eleven is a higher octave of the number two. It carries psychic vibrations and has an equal balance of masculine and feminine properties. Because eleven contains many gifts such as psychic awareness and a keen sense of sensitivity, it also has negative effects such as treachery and betrayal from secret enemies.

11:11 is a digital code for awakening. 11 represent balance. It is the Spiraling Twin DNA

In systems such as Astrology and basic Numerology, eleven is considered to be a Master Number. Ten being the perfect number, eleven represents the exceeding of both. When broken down (1+1=2) It comprises the Two of duality.

TWELVE is the number of Illusion. 12:12 references the digital code for the illusion of time. 2012 in the Mayan Calendar, 12 is the end. The 12 Around 1 to create a matrix or consciousness programs of reality. 12=3 = third dimension = 3D.

Reality is created by 12 a source. 12 is a measure of time - the calendar months - clocks - astrology - etc.

There are twelve signs in the standard Zodiac and twelve months in our year. Twelve hours of the day and night. 12 is a higher octave of the number three and is an indicator of great understanding and wisdom. There were twelve tribes in Israel, twelve disciples, twelve astrological signs in the zodiac, twelve months in the year, and the modern clock is divided into two groups of twelve hours. It is considered to be the ancient number of completion as it signals the end of childhood and the beginning stages of adulthood. The ancient numbering and measuring systems are based on this number, as evidenced by terms such as a dozen (12), a gross (12 times 12), a shilling (12 pence) and a foot (12 inches). There are twelve fruits of the Cosmic Tree, twelve members of the council of the Dalai Lama, twelve paladins or peers of Charlemagne and twelve knights of the Round Table at King Arthur's court. There are twelve Chinese Terrestrial Branches: (chih) Boar- Cock – Dog – Dragon- Goat- Hare – Horse – Monkey – Ox – Rat – Snake –Tiger These are the Beasts of the Constellations and are under the six branches of the Year Tree; there are six wild,---Yin and six domestic---Yang animals represented. There are twelve gates and foundation stones of the Holy City. Herodotus says there are twelve gods and goddesses of Olympus. Aaron had twelve precious stones in his breastplate. There were twelve sons of Jacob. There are twelve months of the year and there were twelve torments.There are Twelve descendants of Ali the cousin of Muhammad. Zodiac has six northern (wet) and six southern (dry) signs: Aries, Leo, Sagittarius are fire, hot and dry, East. Taurus, Virgo, Capricorns are earth, cold, dry, South. Gemini, Libra, Aquarius are air, hot, wet, West. Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces are water, cold, wet, North.

The number THIRTEEN is probably the most common of all superstitions, considered a bad luck number. 13 is a Fibonacci Number (F7). 13 is the second Star Number. There are 13 circles in Metatron's Cube. 13 is the atomic number of aluminum. The Luna-solar calendar generally has 12 months but every second or third year has 13. With the 12 around 1 = 13 people at the Last Supper, 12 disciples around Jesus, his death creating bad luck, until he returns. Some streets do not contain a house number 13. In some forms of motor sport, for example Formula One, there is no number 13 car. The legion with which Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon was the Legio XIII Gemina or the 13th legion. The Code of Hammurabi does not contain a thirteenth law. The Apollo 13 spacecraft malfunctioned after being launched on April 11th at 13:13 CST, forcing it to return to Earth without a landing on the moon and imperiling its crew.

TWENTY-ONE is a number of mystical import, partly because it is the product of 3 and 7, the most sacred of the odd numbers, but especially because it is the sum of the numerical value of the letters of the Divine Name, Eheyeil, thus:5+ 10+ 5+ 1 = 21.

It is little valued in Freemasonry, but is deemed of great importance in the Cabala and in Alchemy; in the latter, because it refers to the twenty-one days of distillation necessary for the conversion of the grosser metals into silver.

THIRTY-SIX In the Pythagorean doctrines of numbers, it symbolized the male and female powers of nature united, because it is composed of the sum of the four odd numbers, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16, added to the sum of the four even numbers, 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 20, for 16 + 20 = 36.

FORTY is the multiple of two perfect numbers four and ten. The alleged period of probation of our Adam and Eve in Eden; the continuous deluge of forty days and nights, and the same number of days in which the maters remained upon the face of the earth; the Lenten season of forty days' fast observed by Christians with reference to the fast of Jesus in the Wilderness, and by the Hebrews to the earlier desert fast for a similar period; of the forty years spent in the Desert by Moses and Elijah and the Israelites, which succeeded the concealment of Moses the same number of years in the land of Midian. Moses was forty days and nights on the Mount. The days for embalming the dead were forty.

The forty years of the reign of Saul, of David, and of Solomon; the forty days of grace allotted to Nineveh for repentance; the forty days' fast before Christmas in the Greek Church; as well as its being the number of days of mourning in Assyria, Phoenicia, and Egypt, to commemorate the death and burial of their Sun God; and as well the period in the festivals of the resurrection of Adonis and Osiris; the period of forty days thus being a bond by which the whole world, ancient and modern, Pagan, Jewish, and Christian, is united in religious sympathy.

Well there is more in this strange mystic life.

What do we know!

Sami Cherkaoui

www.samicherkaouiarabicblog.com

US Lawmakers hail Netanyahu’s Equivocating Speech

US Senates applauded the Israeli Prime Minister’s 40 minutes speech 30 times!
Could Israel possibly wish for more than that?

Well, there is no harm in following certain politics and stand strong with certain friends and political allies.  However the harm is in trying to rewrite history in a tailor made version that makes the wrong right and the right wrong.

If Jewish people are not foreign occupiers of the land, Israel certainly is.

In his speech before the US Congress, the Prime Minister of Israel said to his listeners, “if you know Samaria; the Jewish people are not occupiers”. And Jerusalem to remain the Capital of United Israel!

Well I am not sure how well most of the Senates who stood and applauded Netanyahu speech know Samaria and or the history of Jerusalem. But Samaria and Jerusalem was occupied by the Jewish people in the past to establish the Kingdom of Israel and again in the present to establish the State of Israel.

Samaria is now Nablus Mountains, and it is located in the Northern part of the West Bank. And according to the Bible it stretched from the Mediterranean coast to Jordan Valley. Samaria City was once the Capital of the Kingdom of Israel.

How this happened?  And how the Jews came to this Land?

If we go to the roots of history and according also to what was mentioned in the Old and New Testaments about the first inhabitants of the region that is named Canaan Land, there were always people living in the area long before Ibrahim decided to move from his native city in Mesopotamia to Canaan and make it his home.

Of-course Ibrahim is the Father of the three main religions.

The Jebusites were also offspring of Canaan, and were settling in Philistine where they built the city of Jebus (Now Jerusalem) till it was later conquered by King David.

Aprachid (son of Shem), was the father of Eber who is the main seed of Hebrews.

From Eber came Joktan who is the main seed of Arabs.

The other son of Eber whose name is Peleg (brother of Joktan), settled in Babel, and the Book of Genesis marked that in his days "the Earth was divided", which was politically translated to the start of a “feud” between the two brothers (Peleg and Joktan).

As a result Joktan fled Babel to settle in the Arabian Peninsula. His descendents were Adnan and Maad, from whom Mohammed was a descendent. Prophet Muhammed goes to his roots and stops at Adnan, saying he does not wish to go further back?

From Peleg’s descendents was Abraham who had a son from Lady Sara called Isaac and a son from Lady Hagar called Ismail. Ismail was raised by Arabs and Isaac was raised by Hebrews and from him came Jacob, the father of the Israelites.

Abraham left Babylon towards Canaan land, and settled in a place called Shechem (Biblical name) which is now known as Nablus in Palestine.

Later, following the Exodus from Egypt, Joshua assembled the Israelites in Shechem and encouraged them to reaffirm their adherence to the Torah, and take the Promised Land.

According to Book of Genesis, God promised this Land to Abraham’s descendants.

This is may be why all three religions claim the Land.

By the time when Moses was born (around 1300 BC), the Hittite Empire was extended to most of Anatolia and parts of Syria and Canaan.

Although the Mesopotamian region maintained its independence through this period, it was not a power in the Near East, and mostly sat out the large wars fought over the Levant between Egypt, the Hittite Empire, and Mitanni, as well as independent peoples in the region. Assyria participated in these wars toward the end of the period.

Following the Biblical times, Exodus from Egypt happened in a time between 1400 and 1300 BC. During that period Assyria became the most powerful kingdom on Earth and Egypt lost its grip over the Levant.

Sinai was the first stop of Moses, and the Israelites refused to enter the “Promised Land”, (Land of Canaan) because they were afraid of the Giants “The Amorites”.

Moses could not enter the Promised Land and died at the eastern shores of Jordan River.

First Occupation

After Moses death, Joshua invaded Canaan and destroyed Jericho and from there he was able to lead the Israelites to several victories, securing much of the Land of Canaan.

The Israelites settled there till the time when King David came and the Kingdom of Israel was established.

The Jews consider David as the King of Israel and the Jewish people, but he is also a prominent figure to the Christian and Islamic cultures.

The Kingdom of Israel was always mentioned in history as the Northern Kingdom which is different than the Southern Kingdom of Judah.

It was a union of all the twelve Israelite tribes living in the area that presently approximates today the land of occupied Palestine by Israel.

Shechem was the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel. Afterwards it was Tirzah, which is now a little town near Nablus called Tal Al Farah.

King Solomon was the third king of the United Monarchy and the final king before two kingdoms split.

On the succession of Solomon's son, Rehoboam, in c. 930 BCE the country split into two kingdoms: Israel (including the cities of Shechem and Samaria) in the north and Judah (containing Jerusalem) in the south.

Israel continued to exist within its reduced territory as an independent kingdom until around 720 BCE, when it was again invaded by Assyria and the rest of the population deported.

When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom.

The First Temple period ended around 586 BCE, as the Babylonians conquered Judah and Jerusalem, and destroyed the Temple.

In 538 BCE, after 50 years of Babylonian captivity, Persian King Cyrus the Great invited the Jews to return to Judah to rebuild the Temple.

Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, 70 years after the destruction of the First Temple.

In about 445 BCE, King Artaxerxes I of Persia issued a decree allowing the city and the walls to be rebuilt.

When Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III.

In 63 BCE, Pompey the Great of Rome captured Jerusalem, incorporating Judea into the Roman Republic.

As Rome became stronger it installed Herod as a Jewish client king.

In 4 BC Herod's son, Herod Archelaus was allotted by Caesar Augustus the greater part of the kingdom (Samaria, Judea, and Idumea) with the title of Ethnarch (Ruler) until 6 AD when Judaea province was brought under direct Roman rule at the time of the Census of Quirinius, which was the time when the Roman provinces of Syria and Lydia were enrolled by the Roman Empire for tax purposes.

Publius Sulpicius Quirinius was appointed governor of Syria, after the banishment of Herod Archelaus and the imposition of direct Roman rule on what became Iudaea Province (the conglomeration of Samaria, Judea proper, and Idumea).

In Christianity, the Gospel of Luke connects the birth of Jesus to a worldwide census in which individuals had to return to their ancestral cities.

Jesus' mother Mary and step father Joseph, travelled from their home in Nazareth, Galilee, to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born.

This census explains how Jesus, a Galilean, could have been born in Bethlehem, the city of King David.

When Romans conquered the Levant shortly before the time of Jesus, they took the name, 'Philistia' and applied it to the entire region that is south of Canaan Lands, including the land occupied by the Jews and their neighbors. It is from this word, 'Philistia,' that we get our modern English name 'Palestine.'

Palestine at time of Jesus was part of the Roman Empire, which controlled its various territories in a number of ways.

Jews were not the only ones to move west into this new area of influence. Native Mesopotamians also migrated on a large scale. In fact, the region of western Syria had become so racially "Babylonian" by the end of the Seleucid rule, that Strabo the geographer of the 1st century B.C.E. said the peoples of Mesopotamia and those of Syria were then a homogeneous group.

Mesopotamia by the 1st century BC, the Arabs had replaced the earlier people in the south and made up a third of the country (Strabo).

Christians refer to Palestine as the Holy Land because it was the scene of Jesus' life. It is also holy to Hebrews, and Muslims.

Ancient Palestine lay in both the geographic and cultural center of the known world, surrounded by such great ancient civilizations as the Hittite, Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian, and the Mediterranean civilizations to the west.

At the time when Jesus was born, the Jews understood the world to be divided into two types of people: Jewish and Gentile (non-Jew). The Jews worked hard to disassociate themselves from the Gentiles.

Jerusalem was center of the Christian Church in the 1st century, because it had the prestige of being the city of Christ's death and resurrection and the center of the Apostolic Age. But it became decentralized and the 2nd century witnessed fierce attacks on the Apostles.

Islam revived the term (Hanif) that refers to an era prior to the advent religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In Islam it refers to the pre-Islamic people in the period of (Jahilyah) or the Age of Ignorance, who rejected polytheism (Shirk) and retained the tenets of the monotheist religion of Ibrahim.

In other words Islam considered Ibrahim neither Jew nor Christian, but referred to him and his son Ismail as the first Muslims.

Muslims believe that Ibrahim and Ismail built the Ka'aba in Mekkah, and they are the ancestors of Arabs.

The Sassanid and Byzantine Empires collapsed under Muslim conquests, which reacquired the lands of Egypt, Palestine and Syria.

Jews and Christians eventually lost their influence in these territories.

Romans re-named the Land of Canaan; Palaestina, and also re-named the area including Negef, Sinai and the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula as Palaestina Salutoris, sometimes called Palaestina III.

By 635, Palestine, Jordan and southern Syria with the exception of Jerusalem and Caesarea (Quisaryah) were in Muslim hands. Quisaryah shortly was lifted but resumed after the Battle of Yarmouk untill it fell in 640.

Muslims then decided to take Jerusalem, and the city rulers conditioned their surrender only to Caliph Omar bin Al Khattab in person, who came and took the keys of the city.

Syria was divided by the Muslims into four districts: 1- Jund Dimashq Al Sham(Damascus). 2- Jund Hims (Homs). 3- Jund Al Urdun (Jordan) and Jund Filastin (Palestine). A fifth district was later added to Palestine; Jund Qinnasrin.

In Arabic, the area approximating the Byzantine Diocese of Palaestina I in the south (roughly Judea, Philistia, and southern Jordan) was called Jund Filastin (meaning "the military district of Palestine", as a tax administrative area), and the Diocese of Palaestina II in the north (roughly Samaria, Galilee, Golan, and northern Jordan) Jund al-Urdunn. Land of Canaan

Muslims considerslims consider themselves the natural successors of Abraham, Moses, Jesus and all the other Prophets, and this is why Palestine was and still is of extreme significance.

The Jews and most of the Christians welcomed the Muslims after they had been severely oppressed in the aftermath of the wars with Persia.

Jews especially enjoyed more freedom under Muslim rule than anywhere else in the world. They were granted in Palestine considerable autonomy to make and enforce their own religious, judicial and social rules. Many Christians and Jews held important posts under various Muslim Caliphs.

Muslims removed the restrictions that Romans and Byzantines had placed on the right of Jews to visit and inhabit Jerusalem.

When Abd Al-MAlik Bin Marwan became Caliph, he ordered to build the Dome of Rock near Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Later Al Aqsa Mosque was rebuilt by orders of Caliph Walid Bin Abd Al-Malik.

The site where the Dome was built is also known in Judaism as the Foundation Stone, the spot where Jacob saw in his dreams a ladder to the sky that he climbed and God gave him the name Israel.

Muslims believe that this is also the spot from where Muhammad ascended to heaven in the course of a night journey.

By building the Dome of Rock, Muslims actually were expressing their reverence for Jerusalem, as city of the Prophets from Abraham to Muhammad who according to Islam is the "Seal of Prophets".

Christians and Jews under Umayyad rule were given the official title "People of the Book" with reference to the common roots they share with Muslims.

Jerusalem had been for centuries under Muslim rulings, and some Christians thought that it is time to get back the Holy City to Christian authorities.

The idea of Holy War came after many Western Christians cut out red crosses and sewed them on their tunics

The crusaders under Godfrey marched towards Jerusalem under Raymond St Gilles. They reached the Holy City by early 1099.

Godfrey ruled for one year and died. His brother Baldwin of Edessa succeeded him, and was the first person to take the title King of Jerusalem.

At the Battle of Hattin, Salah Eddin faced the combined forces of the Crusaders, he made his decisive victory against them and captured most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem by July 1187. This battle was a turning point in the history of the Crusades. Muslim army captured every Crusade city and all Jerusalem fell to Salah Eddin by October 1187.

Upon the capture of Jerusalem, Salah Eddin summoned all Jews and sent them to resettle in the city.

In 1228 Fredrick tricked the Egyptian Sultan of Ayyubids, who was facing a fierce rebellion, in a treaty to cede Jerusalem to the Franks, along with a narrow corridor to the coast. In addition Frederick had Nazareth, Sidon, Jaffa and Bethlehem. Muslims retained control over Temple Mount, Al Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock. The Transjordan castles remained in the Ayyubids hands. The treaty made for 10 years.

However in the years to follow the City fell to the Khwarezman Turks, the Egyptians and the Tatars who handed it to the Mamluks.

The Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent took Jerusalem in 1517, and the city enjoyed prosperous period under his rule. Its huge walls around the Old City were rebuilt and it was also reckoned as the capital city of Palestine.

During the Ottoman Reign Palestine and Jerusalem enjoyed a religious and political peace. Jews, Christians and Muslims lived in harmony together.

The Second Occupation

After WWI, Samaria, which was part of the Ottoman Empire, was entrusted by the League of Nations to Britain as a British Mandate of Palestine.  Palestine was under the British Rule.

In 1948, the UN adopted the Partition Plan of Palestine to two states Jewish and Arab, with Jerusalem-Bethlehem area being under special international protection. To resolve the plight of Jews displaced as a result of the Holocaust, the Palestinians had to be displaced. Flows of Jews came to Palestine to establish the State of Israel.

After 1948 Samaria and Judea were incorporated with Jordan, and the territory was renamed the West Bank.

The Third Occupation

In 1967 Israel took Samaria (West Bank) and Jerusalem, during the six day war along with other lands occupied from Egypt and Syria.

In 1988 Jordan ceded control of the West Bank to PLO and this was confirmed later by the Israeli-Jordanian Peace Treaty of 1993. However Jordan recognized the Palestinian Authority as sovereign in the territory, and later in Oslo Accords the administration of "some" of the territory of Samaria was transferred to the Palestinian Authority.

It might be true that the Jewish people are not occupiers of the Samaria and the rest of the Palestinian lands because they were part of the inhabitants through out history, but Israel certainly is.

History witnessed Jews and Arabs living together at all times, and also witnessed many attempts by Jews to control the land politically using diplomatic and military methods.

What the American Lawmakers want to witness, after they have witnessed the elimination of Palestine in 1948, and the occupation of the West Bank and Gaza strip in 1967, and the agony of the Palestinians in their homeland and outside?

What painful compromises Mr. PM is referring to, when he is allowing a “Palestinian State” with borders he alone draws, with people he alone chooses and with laws he only makes?

What does he mean that Jerusalem is the capital of United Israel?

Can the US Senates explain that?

And yet they hail and applaud….. Strange!

Sami Cherkaoui

www.samicherkaouiarabicblog.blogspot.com